33
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
(..4..)
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS ON INHUMAN ACTS
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
Table of Contents
I. Introduction:-............................................................................................................................. 34
II. Definition and meaning of the term ‘genocide’-..................................................................... 35
III. Obligation on state parties:-.................................................................................................... 35
3. To enact necessary legislation (Article V)- ......................................................................... 35
4. Trial of the person Charged with the offence (Article VI):-................................................. 36
5. Not to treat offenders as political criminals and to extradite them (Article VII):- .............. 36
****
I. Introduction:-............................................................................................................................. 36
****
3. Non-refoulement (Article 3)-................................................................................................ 40
5. Universal jurisdiction over torture (Article 5)-..................................................................... 40
****
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination....................................... 41
I. Introduction-.............................................................................................................................. 41
1. Definition of “Racia Discrimination” (Article 1)-............................................................ 41
34
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
Part II- Articles (8-16)-............................................................................................................. 43
****
****
I. Introduction:-............................................................................................................................. 44
1. Definition of ‘forced labour” (Art. 2)-.................................................................................. 44
****
III. Customary International Law:-........................................................................................... 46
****
I. Introduction:-
The terms “crimes against humanity”, “ethnic cleansing” and “genocide” have
been used interchangeably. Although the term “genocide” was coined recently, acts of
genocide have been committed throughout history. The Genocide Convention was
landmark resolution by the General Assembly that recognised ‘genocide’ as
and punish its perpetration. Subsequent discussions and negotiations among UN member
states resulted in the Convention on Genocide.
The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(CPPCG),
or
the Genocide
Convention,
is
treaty that
35
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
on 9 December 1948, during the third session of the United Nations General Assembly.
2022.
II. Definition and meaning of the term ‘genocide’-
Article II of the Genocide Convention 1948 defines "genocide." It provides that
‘genocide’ means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole
or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group as such:
(a)
Killing
members
of
the
group;
(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its
physical
(d) Imposing
destruction
in
intended
whole
or
births
in
part;
measures
to
prevent
within
the
group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children from one group to another group.
committing genocide punishable under international law.
An important characteristic of genocide is the targeting of a victim not as
an individual or for any reason peculiar to him personally but because he is a member of
a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group.
Not only killing but the acts of non-killing, such as causing serious bodily
and mental harm, acts intended to cause physical destruction, preventing births or forcibly
transferring children out of the group to another group that eventually eliminates the
group, also comes under the ambit of the crime of Genocide.
III. Obligation on state parties:-
The Convention obliges states with the following-
1. To take measures to prevent and punish the crime of genocide (Article I):-
The State parties, under the convention, shall operate with an obligation to take
measures to prevent and punish the crime of genocide, whether committed in the time of
war or peace.
2. to Punish offender (Article IV)-
The persons committing genocide shall be punished by the member states even if
they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public servants, officials or private
individuals.
3. To enact necessary legislation (Article V)-
The Contracting Parties undertake to enact, in accordance with their respective
Constitutions, the necessary legislation to give effect to the provisions of the present
Convention and, in particular, to provide effective penalties for persons guilty of genocide
36
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
or any of the other acts enumerated in Article III.
4. Trial of the person Charged with the offence (Article VI):-
A person charged with genocide shall be tried in a competent tribunal of the State in the
territory of which the act was committed or by an international penal tribunal with
accepted jurisdiction.
5. Not to treat offenders as political criminals and to extradite them (Article
VII):-
Genocide and the other acts enumerated in Article III shall not be considered
political crimes for the purpose of extradition.
The Contracting Parties pledge to grant extradition in such cases in accordance with their
laws and treaties in force.
6. Call the UN to take preventive action (Article VIII)-
Any Contracting Party may call upon the competent organs of the United Nations to take
such action under the Charter of the United Nations as they consider appropriate for the
prevention and suppression of acts of genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in
Article III.
This obligation, along with the prohibition of not committing genocide, is considered a
norm of international customary law and is binding on all states, irrespective of the
ratification of the Convention in those states.
IV. Disputes are to be submitted to the International Court of Justice (Article
IX)-
Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpretation, application
or fulfilment of the present Convention, including those relating to the responsibility of a
State for genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in Article III, shall be submitted to
the International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to the dispute.
Since the convention came into force in January 1951, about 80 United Nations member
states, including India, have passed legislation incorporating the provisions of CPPCG
into their municipal law.
***
Apartheid
I. Introduction:-
The commission of inhumane acts amounts to serious human rights violations in
the context of laws, policies and practices. Apartheid was a system of
colony of white Europeans. Through apartheid legislation, they tried to ensure their
37
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
dominance in all spheres of life, suppressing existing Indians, coloured and Blacks.
Apartheid was characterised by an authoritarian political culture based on ‘boss-hood' or
'boss-ship', which ensured that South Africa was dominated politically, socially, and
Africans. It entailed the segregation of public facilities and social events, which dictated
housing and employment opportunities by race, wherein only White was preferred. It had
little resemblance with the Caste system that existed in India.
four racial groups based on appearance, known ancestry, socioeconomic status, and
cultural lifestyle: "Black", "White", "Coloured", and "Indian". Places of residence were
determined by racial classification. These acts ensured the prolonged and cruel
discriminatory treatment by one racial group over another to control them and maintain
the system of racial oppression. Atrocities against the majority of blacks and other groups
continued till 17 June 1991, when, due to international pressure and internal anti-
apartheid movements led by Nelson Mandela, the apartheid legislation was repealed, and
all South Africans got equal rights with whites.
This Convention was adopted on 30 November 1973 by the General Assembly of
the UN, entered into force in 1976, and today binds 109 States Parties. Being party to the
Convention, India passed “The Anti-Apartheid (United Nations Convention) Act, 1981
to punish any anti-apartheid practice in the country.
II. Convention on Apartheid:-
The International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of Apartheid
treaty was an attempt to criminalise racial separation and segregation policies such as
Convention presently has more than one hundred and seven state parties.
1. Object clause of the Convention-
The Convention, in its object clause, considered the provisions of the charter of
the UN, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Declaration on the Granting of
Independence to Colonial Countries and People, the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, the Convention on the Non-Applicability of
38
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, all states should give
respect to the human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to
race, sex, language or religion and to eliminate all sorts of discrimination. The object
Claues vouchs for is the implementation of noble humanitarian ideals mentioned in the
above conventions to eliminate discrimination of all sorts against humanity.
2. Definition of Apartheid (Art. 2):-
The International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of
Apartheid defines the term “the crime of apartheid” “the crime of apartheid” which shall
include similar policies and practices of racial segregation and discrimination as practised
in southern Africa, shall apply to the following inhuman acts committed to establish and
maintain domination by one racial group of persons over any other racial group of persons
and systematically oppressing them:
(a) Denial to a member or members of a racial group or groups of the right to life and
liberty of person:
(i) By murder of members of a racial group or groups;
(ii) By the infliction upon the members of a racial group or groups of serious bodily or
mental harm, by the infringement of their freedom or dignity, or by subjecting them to
torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment;
(iii) By arbitrary arrest and illegal imprisonment of the members of a racial group or
groups;
(b) Deliberate imposition on a racial group or groups of living conditions calculated to
cause its or their physical destruction in whole or in part;
(c) Any legislative measures and other measures calculated to prevent a racial group or
groups from participation in the political, social, economic and cultural life of the
country and the deliberate creation of conditions preventing the full development of such
a group or groups, in particular by denying to members of a racial group or groups basic
human rights and freedoms, including the right to work, the right to form recognised trade
unions, the right to education, the right to leave and to return to their country, the right to
a nationality, the right to freedom of movement and residence, the right to freedom of
opinion and expression, and the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association;
d) Any measures, including legislative measures, designed to divide the population
along racial lines by the creation of separate reserves and ghettos for the members of a
racial group or groups, the prohibition of mixed marriages among members of various
racial groups, the expropriation of landed property belonging to a racial group or groups
or to members thereof;
(e) Exploitation of the labour of the members of a racial group or groups, in particular
39
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
by submitting them to forced labour; (f) Persecution of organizations and persons by
depriving them of fundamental rights and freedoms because they oppose apartheid.
In short, the crime of apartheid refers to a series of inhuman acts including murder,
torture, arbitrary arrest, illegal imprisonment, exploitation, marginalisation, and
persecution—committed to establish and maintain the domination of one racial group by
another. The Convention thus departs from the traditional rule of ‘state sovereignty’ in
that it authorises the national courts of state parties to attribute individual criminal
responsibility for the crime of apartheid to both government leaders and their supporters
in certain instances.
3. Punishment shall apply irrespective of motive and place of residence (Article
III)-
International criminal responsibility shall apply, irrespective of the motive
involved, to individuals, members of organizations and institutions and representatives
of the State, whether residing in the territory of the State in which the acts are perpetrated
or in some other State.
4. Undertaking of the State parties (Article IV)-
The States Parties to the present Convention undertake to adopt any legislative or
other measures necessary to suppress as well as to prevent any encouragement of the
crime of apartheid and similar segregationist policies or their manifestations and to punish
persons guilty of that crime;
***
Convention agasint Torture
The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment (commonly known as the United Nations
Convention against Torture (UNCAT)) is an international human rights treaty
under the review of the United Nations that aims to prevent torture and other
acts of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment around the
honour of the convention, 26th June is now recognised as the International
1. The definition of torture (Article 1):-
For the purposes of the Convention, torture is defined as: “any act by which- (i) severe
pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person.
(ii) for such purposes as obtaining from him or a third person information or a confession,
40
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
punishing him for an act he or a third person has committed or is suspected of having
committed, or intimidating or coercing him or a third person, or for any reason based on
discrimination of any kind,
(iii) when such pain or suffering is inflicted by or at the instigation of or with the consent
or acquiescence of a public official or other person acting in an official capacity. It does
not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in or incidental to lawful
sanctions.”
2. Prevention of torture (Article 2)-
A State Party has an obligation to take effective measures to prevent acts of torture
in any territory under its jurisdiction, including legislative, administrative, judicial or
other measures. Article 2(2) states that “no exceptional circumstances whatsoever” may
be invoked in justification of torture.
3. Non-refoulement (Article 3)-
A State Party cannot expel, return or extradite a person to another State where
there are “substantial grounds” for believing that the person would be at risk of being
subjected to torture.
4. The criminalisation of torture (Article 40)-
A State Party is required to ensure that all acts of torture are offences under their
criminal law, including attempts to commit torture and acts by any person which
constitute complicity or participation in torture. The Committee against Torture requires
that States use, as a minimum, the definition of torture included in Article 1 of the
Convention.
5. Universal jurisdiction over torture (Article 5)-
A State Party must establish its jurisdiction over any persons found in its territory
who are alleged to have committed torture, regardless of where the alleged act was
committed or the nationality or residence of the alleged perpetrator.
6. The exercise of universal jurisdiction (Articles 6 to 9 )-
A State Party must secure the custody of an alleged perpetrator when they are
“satisfied, after an examination of information available to them, that the circumstances
so warrant.” A State Party is obliged to initiate a preliminary investigation into the facts
immediately. A State Party to extradite a suspected torturer, or if that is not possible, to
prosecute the individual. A suspected torturer may be extradited when a request is made.
Where there is no extradition treaty, the Convention may be used as a legal basis for
extradition.
States Parties are obliged to cooperate with each other and supply all evidence at
their disposal necessary for criminal proceedings against persons accused of torture.
41
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
The convention further runs up to 33 Articles covering a number of its aspects.
Indian Position-
Although India signed the Convention against Torture in 1997, it has not yet
ratified it by making a law on it. About 160 countries have already enacted laws
implementing the Convention.
However, provisions in the Indian Penal Code, 1860, Sections 330 and 348
penalise acts of torture with seven and three years of imprisonment, respectively. The
provisions do not apply to police officers. Thus, these two sections fall short of covering
all aspects of the Convention.
****
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
I. Introduction-
On 21 December 1965, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution
2106, which established the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (ICERD).
The Convention essentially resolves “to adopt all necessary measures for speedily
eliminating racial discrimination in all its forms and manifestations, and to prevent and
combat racist doctrines and practices in order to promote understanding between races
and to build an international community free from all forms of racial segregation and
racial discrimination.”
So far, 188 countries have ratified the convention, including India.
II. Object of the Convention:-
In its preamble, the Convention notes that all human beings are born free and equal
in dignity and rights and that everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set out
therein, without distinction of any kind, in particular as to race, colour or national origin.
II. Arrangement of the Articles of the Convention:-
A total of 25 Articles of the convention are arranged in three parts.
Part I- Articles (1-7)-
These Articles cover recommendations to State Parties on eliminating all forms of racial
discrimination.
1. Definition of “Racia Discrimination” (Article 1)-
In this Convention, the term "racial discrimination" shall mean
(i) any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference
(ii) based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin, which has the purpose or
effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise on an equal
42
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
footing,
(iii) of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural
or any other field of public life.
This Convention shall not apply to distinctions, exclusions, restrictions or preferences
made by a State Party to this Convention between citizens and non-citizens.
The provisions of this Convention do not affect State Parties' laws concerning nationality,
citizenship or naturalisation, provided such provisions do not discriminate against any
particular nationality.
Special measures taken for the sole purpose of securing adequate advancement of certain
racial or ethnic groups or individuals requiring such protection as may be necessary in
order to ensure such groups or individuals equal enjoyment or exercise of human rights
and fundamental freedoms shall not be deemed racial discrimination, provided, however,
that such measures do not, as a consequence, lead to the maintenance of separate rights
for different racial groups and that they shall not be continued after the objectives for
which they were taken have been achieved.
2. State obligation (Article 2)-
The States Parties shall condemn racial discrimination. They shall engage in no
act or practice of racial discrimination against persons, groups or institutions and ensure
that all public authorities and institutions shall act in conformity with this obligation. State
Parties shall not sponsor, defend or support racial discrimination by any persons or
organisations. Each State Party shall take effective measures to review its policies and to
amend, rescind or nullify any laws and regulations which may create or perpetuate racial
discrimination.
3. States Parties condemn racial segregation and apartheid (Article 3)-
The State Parties condemn racial segregation and apartheid and shall undertake to
prevent, prohibit and eradicate all practices of this nature in territories under their
jurisdiction.
4. States Parties shall condemn the superiority of one race over another (Article
4)-
States Parties shall condemn all propaganda and organisations which are based on ideas
or theories of superiority of one race or group of persons of one colour or ethnic origin or
which attempt to justify or promote racial hatred and discrimination in any form. State
Parties shall adopt immediate and positive measures designed to eradicate all incitement
to, or acts of, such discrimination.
5. List of civil and political rights (Article 5):-
It lists civil and political rights, such as the right to political participation, freedom
43
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
of speech, and freedom of movement. It also elaborates on economic, social, and cultural
rights, such as rights relating to work, housing, health care, and education. This list is not
exhaustive. The State parties must guarantee “equality before the law”.
6. Protection from discrimination (Article 6)-
The Article guarantees effective protection from discrimination and remedies
through equal access to competent and fair tribunals, prompt investigations and
prosecutions followed by just and adequate reparations.
7. State parties shall undertake to adopt immediate and effective measures
(Article 7)-
States Parties undertake to adopt immediate and effective measures,
particularly in the fields of teaching, education, culture and information, with a view to
combating prejudices which lead to racial discrimination.
Part II- Articles (8-16)-
These Articles propose establishing a Committee on the Elimination of Racial
Discrimination composed of nationals of the State Parties to the Convention. They
prescribe the manner in which State Parties shall report the measures they have adopted
to observe the rights recognised by the Convention.
Part -III Articles (17-25)-
These Articles discuss the process by which the Convention is to be ratified and
amended.
***
Slavery Convention, 1926.
In one form or another, Slavery was in practice in all states, including India.
To eliminate the practice, the Slavery Convention has been brought into existence.
International Day for Abolition of Slavery is observed on 2 December.
I. Object of the Convention:-
(i) In order to secure the complete suppression of slavery in all its forms
and of the slave trade by land and sea, (ii) to prevent forced labour from developing into
conditions analogous to slavery, the Slavery Convention 2026 came into existence. It was
amended in 1953. The Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave
Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery in 1956.
II. Provisions of the Convention:-
Some important provisions of the convention are mentioned hereunder-
1. Definition of Slavery and Slave Trade (Art. 1)-
(a) Slavery is the status or condition of a person over whom any or all of the powers
attaching to the right of ownership are exercised.
44
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
(b) The slave trade includes all acts (i) involved in the capture, acquisition or
disposal of a person with the intent to reduce him to slavery; (ii) all acts involved in the
acquisition of a slave with a view to selling or exchanging him; (iii) all acts of disposal
by sale or exchange of a slave acquired with a view to being sold or exchanged, and, (iv)
in general, every act of trade or transport in slaves.
2. Undertakings of Contracting parties (Art. 3 to 8)-
The High Contracting Parties undertake-
a. to adopt all appropriate measures with a view to preventing and suppressing the
embarkation, disembarkation and transport of slaves in their territorial waters and upon
all vessels flying their respective flags (Art. 3).
b. to give to one another every assistance with the object of securing the abolition of
slavery and the slave trade (Art. 4).
c. to take all necessary measures to prevent compulsory or forced labour from developing
into conditions analogous to slavery. (Art. 5).
d. to adopt the necessary measures so that severe penalties may be imposed for such
infractions (Art. 6).
e. to communicate to each other and to the Secretary-General of the League of Nations
any laws and regulations which they may enact with a view to the application of the
provisions of the present Convention (Art. 7).
f. agree that disputes arising between them relating to the interpretation or application of
this Convention shall, if they cannot be settled by direct negotiation, be referred for
decision to the Permanent Court of International Justice (Art. 8).
***
Forced Labour Convention
I. Introduction:-
The Convention Concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour, 1930, was adopted in
Geneva on 28 June 1930. It has been ratified by 180 states so far. The Convention has
been supplemented by the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957. The
Convention had 33 Articles in total; however, Articles 3 to 24 have been deleted pursuant
to Article 7 of the Protocol of 2014.
The object of the Convention is to suppress the use of forced labour in all
its forms, irrespective of the nature of the work or the sector of activity in which it may
be performed (Art. 1).
II. Provisions of the Convention:-
1. Definition of ‘forced labour” (Art. 2)-
The Convention defines forced labour as “all work or service which is
45
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty and for which the said person
has not offered himself voluntarily”.
Nevertheless, for the purposes of this Convention, the term forced or compulsory
labour shall not include-
(a) any work or service exacted in virtue of compulsory military service laws for
work of a purely military character;
(b) any work or service which forms part of the normal civic obligations of the
citizens of a fully self-governing country;
(c) any work or service exacted from any person as a consequence of a conviction
in a court of law, provided that the said work or service is carried out under the
supervision and control of a public authority and that the said person is not hired to or
placed at the disposal of private individuals, companies or associations;
(d) any work or service exacted in cases of emergency, that is to say, in the event
of war or of a calamity or threatened calamity, such as fire, flood, famine, earthquake,
violent epidemic or epizootic diseases, invasion by animal, insect or vegetable pests, and
in general any circumstance that would endanger the existence or the well-being of the
whole or part of the population;
(e) minor communal services of a kind which, being performed by the members
of the community in the direct interest of the said community, can therefore be considered
as normal civic obligations incumbent upon the members of the community, provided
that the members of the community or their direct representatives shall have the right to
be consulted in regard to the need for such services.
2. Punishment for illegal exaction of forced labour (Art. 25)-
The illegal exaction of forced or compulsory labour shall be punishable as
a penal offence, and it shall be an obligation on any Member ratifying this Convention to
ensure that the penalties imposed by law are adequate and strictly enforced.
*****
International Humanitarian Law (IHL)
International Humanitarian Law, for the sake of brevity, is called IHL. IHL
comprises the rules which regulate the conduct of war. It is a branch of international
law that seeks to limit the effects of armed conflict by protecting persons who are not
participating in hostilities. It also restricts and regulates the means and methods of warfare
mitigation of human suffering. It defines the conduct and responsibilities
46
"लॉ मासटर" पकाशन "
ꢁबꢂलक इटरन
ॅ
शनल लॉ”
पा.
एर.डी. भोरले,
ं
are also known as ‘the law of armed conflict’ or ‘the law of war’. IHL takes measures to
control armed struggles between states, which can be at the international or non-
international levels. It aims at protecting combatants and non-combatants who have been
disabled during armed conflict. IHL has three important laws-
I. Geneva Convention:-
Every state in the world has agreed to be bound by the 1949 Geneva Conventions,
which are a major part of International Humanitarian Law. These conventions are
supplemented by two Protocols. The first Geneva Convention protects wounded and sick
soldiers on land during war. The Second Geneva Convention protects wounded, sick, and
shipwrecked military personnel at sea during war. The third Geneva Convention applies
including those in occupied territory.
II. Hague Convention:-
The Hague Convention is a series of international treaties issued from international
conferences held at the Hague in the Netherlands in 1899 and 1907. The
Conventions establish the laws and customs of war in a strict sense by defining the rules
that belligerents must follow during hostilities.
III. Customary International Law:-
Customary laws play an important role in the evolution of International
Humanitarian Law. They are based on general and consistent practices carried out by
nations throughout the ages, which gives a sense of legal obligation. Customary law is a
principle of International Law that is so fundamental that no nation may ignore it or act
contrary to it.
***
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)-
The International Committee of the Red Cross is the only institution explicitly
named under international humanitarian law as a controlling authority. Its legal mandate
comes from the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and its own Statutes. The ICRC is
based in Geneva, Switzerland, and has won the Nobel Prize three times.
The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is an impartial, neutral, and
independent organisation whose exclusively humanitarian mission is to protect the lives
and dignity of victims of war and internal violence and to provide them with assistance.
Its function is to protect victims of international and internal armed conflicts, including
*****